The history of medical and anatomical illustration dates back to prehistory.
Early cave paintings depict not only human beings, but anatomical drawings of large prey animals. These drawings indicated the location of the heart and were likely used as diagrams to teach young humans how to hunt. Through thousands of years these drawings would evolve into medical illustration, the first steps being made in Egyptian and Greek manuscripts.
Ancient Egyptian circumcision, in the tomb of the Vizier Ankhmahor and his wife Mereruka. Sixth Dynasty (Old Kingdom, ca. 2300 BC). Public Domain.
For years the dissection of animals was relied upon to create approximations of human anatomy for the creation of anatomical illustrations. The practice of human dissection was outlawed and forbidden or a taboo practice in most cultures. During the Renaissance period, dissection of the human body for scientific study began to occur in limited ways, sanctioned by the Italian government and Catholic church.
Artists and anatomists like Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius took advantage of this newly re-established opportunity, ushering in a new era of anatomical drawings and understanding that revolutionized medical illustration and paved the way for utilizing illustration in medical education.
Leonardo da Vinci’s work in particular laid a foundation for the anatomy used in dental education. da Vinci’s work was the first to record minute and detailed orofacial anatomy, or the anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth) and adjoining parts of the face, including representations of the cranium, teeth, and sinuses. He was the first to identify and document human dental formulas, to describe the shape of different teeth and their functions, and to detail the different muscles of the craniofacial region.
In addition to the works of da Vinci and Vesalius during the Renaissance period, the invention of the printing press allowed for widespread dissemination of ideas including the reproduction of illustrations utilizing woodcuts. The books authored by the early anatomists of the Renaissance period would become widely available throughout Europe by the 18th and 19th centuries, allowing pioneering dentists and anatomists to create their own detailed drawings to further document and explain the anatomy of the oral cavity, dental pathology, and surgical techniques. Ultimately, the works of da Vinci, Vesalius, and other pioneer anatomists became the foundation for a number of influential dental authors and pioneers.
The first of these dental and medical illustration works to rise to prominence was Bernhard Siegfried Albinus’ (1697–1770) very influential anatomical atlases, particularly the “Tabulae Sceleti et Musculorum Corporis Humani” (Plates of the Skeleton and Muscles of the Human Body.) Albinus’s anatomical illustrations included detailed representations of the skull and facial structures. These illustrations provided a thorough understanding of the oral skeletal and muscular structure, which were very beneficial for dental professionals and students. The accuracy and detail of Albinus’s drawings of the skull, mandible, and maxilla were instrumental in advancing the understanding of oral and facial anatomy, setting a new standard for anatomical illustrations.
The quality and detail of Albinus’s illustrations were used by other scientists to build upon, and further their own publications and research to continue providing even more accurate representations of the human body and its diseases and conditions. Albinus’s emphasis on empirical observation and accurate visual representation set a high standard for anatomical illustration. His approach influenced the methodology used in dental anatomy and pathology, promoting accuracy and attention to detail in the medical and dental sciences. His contributions helped shape the standards for anatomical illustration and documentation— standards that continue to impact dental education and practice.
Pierre Fauchard is considered the father of modern dentistry, and he would use the groundwork laid out by those before to create textbooks focusing solely on dentistry. As an apprentice to a French naval surgeon, Fauchard witnessed the effects of scurvy on the dentition of the sailors, which sparked his curiosity of the diseases of the mouth. Fauchard would go on to publish his compilation of research in “Le Chirurgien Dentiste, ou Traité des Dents” (The Surgeon Dentist) in 1728. It featured a variety of detailed anatomical illustrations of teeth and related oral diseases, ranging from tooth dysplasia to oral cysts. Being the first book about dentistry in a common language (French) rather than a language associated with scholars at the time (Latin), this book became an integral resource for novel scientific discovery dealing with the mouth and its diseases, with its illustrations providing a broader and more accessible understanding.
After Fauchard, John Hunter, a Scottish surgeon, and devoted anatomist would provide the next evolution in dental illustration. Hunter meticulously researched the anatomy of teeth and jaws and furthered dental understanding resulting in the publishing of “The Natural History of the Human Teeth: explaining their structure, use, formation, growth and diseases” in 1771. His research and illustrations explored anatomy with a level of detail and comprehension not seen in Fauchard’s work. Hunter also extensively researched the development of oral diseases, and provided further insight into what caused them and how they might best be treated. He contributed heavily towards the study of dental surgery and his experiments with early dental implants provided a basis for future implants and dental prosthetics. Hunter’s work would become fundamental to many of the American pioneers in dentistry who would go on to establish the first dental schools, journals, and societies in the world, creating entirely new modes of access for dental illustrations.
Plate VI – A side view of the Upper and Lower-Jaw – John Hunter, “The Natural History of the Human Teeth,” 1771. Public Domain.
Chapin Harris’ made dentistry more widespread at both the professional and educational level. His textbook “The Principles and Practice of Dentistry” pulled from all previous dental anatomists’ works, culminating in a readily accessible source for dental students and practitioners of the era. Chapin Harris along with Horace Hayden founded the world’s first dental college, the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the first nationally disseminated dental journal, the Journal of the American Society of Dental Surgeons, and the first national dental society, the American Society of Dental Surgeons, all in 1839. From this point forward, illustration could play a more definitive role in providing supplemental information to students, professionals, and the public.
Harris’ work would remain some of the most influential until the end of the 19th century, when Max Brödel would come to define medical and dental illustration as its own profession. Brödel worked at Johns Hopkins University, and is well known for his medical and dental illustrations done in pen and ink and carbon dust. His work further pushed the boundaries of detailed representation, expressing dissections of systems in ways never accomplished before. However, his most significant legacy is the creation of the first school of medical illustration. In 1911, he became the director of the Department of Art as Applied to Medicine, and the sole instructor at the school. Graduates of his institution would go on to establish medical illustration as a profession, allowing for more widespread use of medical illustration in academia.
Plate No. 7 – American Frohse Anatomical Chart, A. J. Nystrom, Max Brodel Illustrator, 1918. Public Domain.
